A condition where the body cannot produce or properly use insulin, leading to high blood sugar levels.

Symptoms of Diabetes Mellitus

Increased Thirst (Polydipsia)

Frequent Urination (Polyuria)

Extreme Hunger (Polyphagia)

Unexplained Weight Loss (more common in Type 1 diabetes)

Fatigue

Blurred Vision

Slow-Healing Wounds

Frequent Infections (e.g., skin, urinary tract)

Tingling or Numbness in hands and feet (common in Type 2 diabetes).

Risk Factors

Type 1 Diabetes

Family History: Having a parent or sibling with Type 1 diabetes.

Autoimmune Factors: Immune system attacks insulin-producing cells.

Age: More common in children and young adults.

Type 2 Diabetes

Obesity: Excess body fat contributes to insulin resistance.

Sedentary Lifestyle: Lack of physical activity increases the risk.

Family History: Genetic predisposition to Type 2 diabetes.

Age: Risk increases after 40, though it can occur at any age.

Poor Diet: High intake of sugary and processed foods.

Prediabetes: Elevated blood sugar that hasn’t reached diabetic levels.

Gestational Diabetes (Occurs during pregnancy)

Being Overweight During Pregnancy

Family History of Diabetes

Age Over 25

Previous Gestational Diabetes

Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS)

Diagnosis

Fasting Blood Sugar Test

Measures blood sugar after fasting for 8 hours.

Normal: <100 mg/dL | Diabetes: ≥126 mg/dL.

Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT)

Blood sugar measured before and 2 hours after consuming glucose.

Diabetes: ≥200 mg/dL.

Random Blood Sugar Test

A blood sample taken at any time. Diabetes: ≥200 mg/dL.

HbA1c Test (Glycated Hemoglobin)

Measures average blood sugar over 2–3 months.

Diabetes: ≥6.5%.

Urine Tests

Detect glucose or ketones, particularly in Type 1 diabetes.

Treatment Options

Type 1 Diabetes

Insulin Therapy: Regular insulin injections or insulin pumps to manage blood sugar levels.

Type 2 Diabetes

Metformin: Reduces glucose production in the liver.

Sulfonylureas: Stimulates insulin production.

SGLT2 Inhibitors: Helps the kidneys remove excess glucose.

Gestational Diabetes

Insulin Therapy (if lifestyle changes are not enough)

Hypothyroidism is a condition in which the thyroid gland does not produce enough thyroid hormones (T3 and T4). These hormones regulate the body's metabolism, energy production, and temperature. Insufficient thyroid hormones can cause a variety of symptoms and slow down bodily processes.

Symptoms

Symptoms can vary depending on the severity of the hormone deficiency. Common symptoms include:

Fatigue and Weakness

Weight Gain (despite no changes in diet or activity)

Cold Sensitivity (feeling unusually cold)

Dry Skin and Hair

Hair Thinning or Hair Loss

Constipation

Depression and mood swings

Memory Problems or "Brain Fog"

Slow Heart Rate (Bradycardia)

Puffy Face

Hoarseness

Muscle Weakness and Joint Pain

Swelling in the Neck (due to an enlarged thyroid or goiter)

Menstrual Irregularities (heavy or irregular periods)

Risk Factors

Gender: Women are more likely to develop hypothyroidism.

Age: Risk increases with age, particularly in people over 60.

Autoimmune Diseases: Conditions like Hashimoto’s thyroiditis (an autoimmune attack on the thyroid gland).

Family History: Genetic predisposition to thyroid disorders.

Iodine Deficiency: Iodine is essential for thyroid hormone production.

Thyroid Surgery: Partial or total removal of the thyroid gland.

Radiation Exposure: Radiation therapy to the neck or head.

Certain Medications: Lithium, amiodarone, or interferon-alpha may affect thyroid function.

Pregnancy: Some women develop hypothyroidism during or after pregnancy (postpartum thyroiditis).

Diagnosis

TSH Test (Thyroid Stimulating Hormone): High TSH levels indicate the thyroid is underactive.

Free T4 Test: Measures the levels of thyroxine hormone. Low T4 confirms hypothyroidism.

Thyroid Antibody Test: Detects antibodies in cases of autoimmune thyroiditis (Hashimoto’s disease).

Thyroid Ultrasound: Checks for structural abnormalities, nodules, or enlargement of the thyroid gland.

Physical Examination: Doctors may check for a swollen thyroid (goiter) or other physical symptoms.

Treatment Options

Levothyroxine: A synthetic form of thyroxine (T4), taken as a daily pill to normalize hormone levels.

Dosage is adjusted based on TSH levels and symptoms.

Enlarged thyroid gland.

Symptoms

The symptoms of goiter depend on its size and the underlying thyroid condition. Common symptoms include:

Visible Swelling in the Neck: The most common and noticeable symptom is the enlargement of the thyroid gland, which appears as a lump or bulge in the neck.

Difficulty Swallowing or Breathing: Large goiters may compress the windpipe (trachea) or esophagus, leading to trouble breathing or swallowing.

Hoarseness or Voice Changes: Compression of the vocal cords may cause voice changes.

Pain in the Neck: In rare cases, the goiter may cause discomfort or pain, especially if it's inflamed.

Hyperthyroid Symptoms: If the goiter is associated with hyperthyroidism (e.g., in Graves’ disease), symptoms may include rapid heart rate, weight loss, anxiety, and heat intolerance.

Hypothyroid Symptoms: If the goiter is associated with hypothyroidism (e.g., in Hashimoto's disease), symptoms may include fatigue, weight gain, constipation, and sensitivity to cold.

Thyroid Nodules: Some goiters contain lumps or nodules within the thyroid gland, which may or may not be cancerous.

Risk Factors

Several factors can increase the risk of developing a goiter:

Iodine Deficiency: Iodine is essential for thyroid hormone production. Lack of iodine in the diet is one of the most common causes of goiter worldwide.

Gender: Women are more likely to develop goiters, especially during pregnancy or menopause.

Age: The risk of developing a goiter increases with age.

Family History: A family history of thyroid disorders can increase the risk.

Autoimmune Diseases: Conditions like Graves' disease (hyperthyroidism) and Hashimoto's thyroiditis (hypothyroidism) can cause goiters.

Medications: Certain medications, such as lithium and amiodarone, can affect thyroid function and contribute to goiter development.

Thyroid Nodules: Growths or cysts in the thyroid can lead to goiter formation.

Pregnancy: Hormonal changes during pregnancy can lead to the development of a goiter, especially in women with a predisposition to thyroid issues.

Diagnosis

To diagnose a goiter and determine the underlying cause, doctors may use:

Physical Examination: The doctor will feel the neck to assess the size of the goiter and check for tenderness or asymmetry.

Blood Tests: TSH (Thyroid Stimulating Hormone): Determines whether the thyroid is overactive (low TSH) or underactive (high TSH).

T3 and T4 Tests: Measure thyroid hormone levels to assess thyroid function.

Thyroid Antibodies: To diagnose autoimmune thyroid conditions like Hashimoto’s or Graves’ disease.

Ultrasound: Imaging helps determine the size of the thyroid and identifies the presence of nodules or other abnormalities.

Thyroid Scan: A radioactive iodine scan to determine the activity of thyroid tissue, useful in assessing the function of thyroid nodules.

Fine Needle Aspiration (FNA) Biopsy: If thyroid nodules are detected, this procedure may be used to determine whether they are benign or cancerous.

CT or MRI Scan: In certain cases, to assess the goiter’s impact on surrounding structures, such as the trachea or esophagus.

Treatment Options

The treatment for goiter depends on its size, symptoms, and underlying cause:

Thyroid Hormone Replacement: For goiters caused by hypothyroidism, levothyroxine can help shrink the goiter by normalizing thyroid hormone levels.

Anti-Thyroid Medications: For goiters related to hyperthyroidism (e.g., in Graves' disease), medications like methimazole may be prescribed to reduce thyroid hormone production.

Iodine Supplements: If iodine deficiency is the cause, iodine supplementation may be recommended.

Radioactive Iodine Therapy: In cases of hyperthyroidism, radioactive iodine may be used to shrink the thyroid tissue and reduce the size of the goiter.

Thyroidectomy: In severe cases, where the goiter is large, causing difficulty swallowing or breathing, or if there's a concern about cancer, part or all of the thyroid may be surgically removed.

Surgical Removal of Nodules: If the goiter contains large, suspicious, or cancerous nodules, surgery may be necessary to remove them.

Addison's disease, also known as primary adrenal insufficiency, is a rare disorder that occurs when the adrenal glands, located on top of the kidneys, produce insufficient amounts of hormones, particularly cortisol and sometimes aldosterone. These hormones are crucial for regulating various bodily functions, including metabolism, stress response, and fluid balance. Without adequate levels of cortisol and aldosterone, the body cannot properly manage stress or maintain normal blood pressure and fluid levels.

Symptoms

The symptoms of Addison's disease can develop gradually and may be subtle at first. Common symptoms include:

Fatigue and Weakness: A general feeling of tiredness, even after adequate rest.

Unexplained Weight Loss: This can result from a loss of appetite and changes in metabolism.

Darkening of the Skin (Hyperpigmentation): Especially noticeable in areas exposed to friction, such as elbows, knees, and knuckles.

Low Blood Pressure: This may cause dizziness, especially when standing up quickly.

Salt Cravings: Due to low aldosterone levels, which affect sodium retention.

Nausea, Vomiting, and Diarrhea: These gastrointestinal symptoms may occur, particularly during periods of stress or illness.

Muscle and Joint Pain: General aches or discomfort in muscles and joints.

Irritability or Depression: Psychological symptoms due to hormonal imbalances.

Hypoglycemia (Low Blood Sugar): Cortisol helps maintain blood sugar levels, so its deficiency can lead to low blood sugar, resulting in shakiness or faintness.

Risk Factors

Several factors can increase the risk of developing Addison's disease:

Autoimmune Conditions: The most common cause of Addison’s disease is an autoimmune disorder where the body mistakenly attacks the adrenal glands, damaging their ability to produce cortisol and aldosterone.

Genetic Factors: Addison’s disease can be inherited, especially in the context of other autoimmune disorders.

Infections: Tuberculosis (TB) and fungal infections can damage the adrenal glands.

Adrenal Gland Damage: Other conditions, such as cancer or bleeding, that damage the adrenal glands can cause Addison's disease.

Medications: Certain drugs, particularly anticoagulants, can increase the risk of damage to the adrenal glands.

History of Other Autoimmune Diseases: Individuals with autoimmune diseases such as type 1 diabetes, vitiligo, or thyroid diseases may have a higher risk of developing Addison’s disease.

Adrenal Gland Tuberculosis: Historically, tuberculosis was a leading cause of Addison's disease, though its incidence has decreased.

Diagnosis

Diagnosing Addison's disease typically involves a combination of clinical evaluation, blood tests, and imaging studies:

Cortisol Levels: Low levels of cortisol, especially in the morning, are a key indicator of Addison’s disease.

ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic Hormone) Test: High levels of ACTH in the blood, combined with low cortisol levels, suggest Addison's disease.

Electrolyte Levels: Low sodium and high potassium levels are common due to aldosterone deficiency.

Renin and Aldosterone Tests: These tests assess the function of the adrenal glands and their ability to produce aldosterone.

Antibody Tests: To check for autoimmune causes, antibodies against adrenal tissue or 21-hydroxylase (an enzyme involved in cortisol production) may be present.

ACTH Stimulation Test: This test involves injecting synthetic ACTH and measuring cortisol levels before and after the injection. If the adrenal glands are not responding, it suggests Addison’s disease.

CT Scan or MRI: To assess the size and condition of the adrenal glands and detect any damage or tumors that may be affecting their function.

Treatment Options

Addison’s disease is a chronic condition that requires lifelong treatment to replace the hormones the adrenal glands are not producing. Treatment typically involves:

Corticosteroids: To replace cortisol, medications such as hydrocortisone, prednisone, or dexamethasone are prescribed. These help manage symptoms and maintain normal body functions.

Mineralocorticoids: If aldosterone levels are low, fludrocortisone may be used to help regulate sodium, potassium, and fluid balance.

Androgen Replacement: In some cases, particularly in women, testosterone-like hormones (such as DHEA) may be prescribed.

Cushing’s syndrome is a condition characterized by high levels of cortisol, a hormone produced by the adrenal glands, in the body. Cortisol plays a role in regulating various bodily functions, including metabolism, immune response, and stress management. However, when cortisol levels are too high for an extended period, it can lead to a range of symptoms and health complications.

Cushing’s syndrome can be caused by overproduction of cortisol by the adrenal glands, or it can result from taking high doses of corticosteroid medications used to treat other conditions. The most common cause of endogenous Cushing’s syndrome is Cushing’s disease, which occurs when a pituitary tumor secretes excessive ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone), leading to an overproduction of cortisol.

Symptoms

The symptoms of Cushing’s syndrome develop gradually and vary from person to person, but they often include:

Weight Gain: Particularly in the face (moon face), upper back (buffalo hump), and abdomen.

Skin Changes:

Thinning of the skin, leading to easy bruising.

Purple or pink stretch marks (striae), especially on the abdomen, thighs, and breasts.

Muscle Weakness: Often noticeable in the upper arms and thighs.

Fatigue: Feeling unusually tired or fatigued.

High Blood Pressure (Hypertension): Often resistant to treatment.

Osteoporosis: Weakening of bones, leading to fractures.

Changes in Mood: Irritability, anxiety, depression, and mood swings.

Excessive Hair Growth (Hirsutism): In women, excess hair on the face, chest, and abdomen.

Menstrual Irregularities: In women, irregular periods or absence of periods.

Increased Thirst and Urination: Due to imbalanced electrolyte levels.

Memory and Concentration Problems: Cognitive issues or difficulties with memory.

Infections: Increased susceptibility to infections due to immune suppression.

Risk Factors

Several factors increase the risk of developing Cushing’s syndrome, including:

Corticosteroid Use: Long-term use of medications like prednisone or dexamethasone for conditions such as asthma, arthritis, or autoimmune diseases is the most common cause of Cushing’s syndrome.

Pituitary Tumors (Cushing’s Disease): A tumor in the pituitary gland that produces excess ACTH, which in turn stimulates the adrenal glands to produce too much cortisol.

Adrenal Tumors: Tumors in the adrenal glands can directly produce excess cortisol.

Ectopic ACTH Syndrome: Some cancers (e.g., lung cancer) can produce ACTH, leading to increased cortisol production.

Genetics: Rare genetic conditions such as McCune-Albright syndrome or familial Cushing’s syndrome can increase the likelihood of developing the disorder.

Obesity: Obesity can also increase the risk of Cushing’s syndrome due to potential metabolic changes and hormonal imbalances.

Diagnosis

Diagnosing Cushing’s syndrome involves a series of steps, including:

Physical Examination: A doctor will look for physical signs such as weight gain, skin changes, and high blood pressure that suggest Cushing’s syndrome.

24-Hour Urinary Free Cortisol Test: Measures cortisol levels in urine over a 24-hour period. Elevated levels can indicate Cushing’s syndrome.

Late-Night Salivary Cortisol Test: Cortisol levels normally decrease at night. High levels of cortisol in a late-night saliva sample can be indicative of the disorder.

Dexamethasone Suppression Test: A low-dose dexamethasone test is used to evaluate the body’s ability to suppress cortisol production. In Cushing’s syndrome, cortisol levels remain elevated despite dexamethasone administration.

MRI of the Pituitary Gland: Used to detect tumors or abnormalities in the pituitary gland that may be causing Cushing’s disease.

CT Scan of the Adrenal Glands: To identify tumors or abnormal growths in the adrenal glands.

Chest X-ray or CT Scan: To check for possible ectopic sources of ACTH, such as lung tumors.

ACTH Measurement: If the cause of Cushing’s syndrome is unclear, measuring ACTH levels can help distinguish between pituitary and adrenal causes.

Treatment Options

The treatment approach for Cushing’s syndrome depends on the underlying cause of the condition:

Pituitary Surgery: If a pituitary tumor is causing Cushing’s disease, surgery to remove the tumor (transsphenoidal surgery) is often the treatment of choice.

Adrenal Surgery: If an adrenal tumor is producing excess cortisol, the affected adrenal gland may be removed through surgery (adrenalectomy).

Ectopic Tumor Removal: If Cushing’s syndrome is caused by a tumor elsewhere in the body (e.g., lungs), the tumor may need to be surgically removed.

Steroidogenesis Inhibitors: Drugs like ketoconazole, metyrapone, and mitotane can reduce cortisol production by the adrenal glands.

ACTH Inhibitors: Pasireotide and cabergoline can block ACTH production from the pituitary or ectopic sources.

Glucocorticoid Receptor Antagonists: Mifepristone can block the effects of cortisol on body tissues, especially in cases with diabetes and severe symptoms.

Radiation Therapy: In cases where surgery is not successful or feasible, radiation therapy may be used to treat pituitary tumors. This option can take time to show results but may help reduce cortisol levels over the long term.

A hormonal disorder causing irregular periods, ovarian cysts, and infertility.

Symptoms

The symptoms of PCOS can vary greatly among individuals, but common signs include:

Irregular Menstrual Cycles: Infrequent or prolonged menstrual periods (more than 35 days apart or fewer than 8 periods per year).

Hirsutism: Excessive hair growth in areas such as the face, chest, abdomen, and back.

Acne: Particularly on the face, chest, and upper back.

Scalp Hair Thinning: Thinning or loss of hair on the scalp, similar to male-pattern baldness.

Polycystic Ovaries: Enlarged ovaries containing numerous small cysts (fluid-filled sacs), which can be seen through ultrasound imaging. Ovaries that may not function properly and fail to release eggs (ovulate) regularly.

Infertility: Due to irregular ovulation, individuals with PCOS may experience difficulty getting pregnant.

Weight Gain and Obesity: Many individuals with PCOS struggle with weight gain, particularly around the abdomen.

Insulin Resistance: High levels of insulin in the body can lead to weight gain and increase the risk of developing type 2 diabetes.

Skin Tags: Small, benign growths of skin, often in areas such as the neck or armpits.

Darkening of the Skin: Areas of dark, thickened skin, often found on the back of the neck, underarms, and groin area (acanthosis nigricans).

Risk Factors

While the exact cause of PCOS is unknown, several factors are believed to contribute to its development:

Hormonal Imbalances: Higher levels of androgens (male hormones) are common in PCOS, which can cause symptoms like hirsutism and acne.

Imbalance in the LH (luteinizing hormone) and FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone) levels disrupts the normal ovulation process.

Genetic Factors: PCOS often runs in families, suggesting a genetic predisposition. Individuals with a mother or sister who has PCOS are at a higher risk.

Insulin Resistance: Many individuals with PCOS have insulin resistance, where the body's cells become less responsive to insulin, leading to higher insulin levels in the blood. This may contribute to weight gain, infertility, and increased risk of type 2 diabetes.

Obesity: Being overweight or obese can worsen insulin resistance and exacerbate other symptoms of PCOS.

Inflammation: Increased levels of inflammation are commonly found in individuals with PCOS, which may contribute to insulin resistance and hormone imbalances.

Diagnosis of PCOS

The diagnosis of PCOS is typically made through a combination of clinical evaluations, lab tests, and imaging studies:

Medical History and Physical Exam: The doctor will inquire about menstrual cycles, symptoms of excess androgen (e.g., hirsutism or acne), and family history.  A physical exam to check for signs such as weight gain, excessive hair growth, or skin abnormalities may also be conducted.

Blood Tests: Blood work to measure hormone levels, including androgens (e.g., testosterone), LH and FSH, and insulin levels. Glucose tolerance test to check for insulin resistance or prediabetes.

Ultrasound: A pelvic ultrasound can be performed to check for the presence of multiple cysts in the ovaries, which is one of the key characteristics of PCOS.

Treatment Options

Treatment for PCOS focuses on managing symptoms and reducing the risk of complications, such as infertility, metabolic issues, and diabetes. Options vary based on the individual’s symptoms, health goals, and whether or not they wish to become pregnant.

Hormonal Birth Control: Oral contraceptives (birth control pills, patches, or rings) are commonly used to regulate menstrual cycles, reduce excess androgen, and manage acne and hirsutism.

Anti-Androgen Medications: Drugs such as spironolactone can block the effects of excess androgens, reducing symptoms like hirsutism and acne.

Metformin: Used to manage insulin resistance and lower blood sugar levels. It may also help with weight loss and improve menstrual regularity.

Clomiphene Citrate: A medication commonly prescribed to induce ovulation for those with PCOS who are trying to conceive.

Gonadotropins: Injectable hormones used to stimulate ovulation in individuals who do not respond to oral medications like clomiphene.

Progestin Therapy: To regulate periods and reduce the risk of endometrial cancer for individuals with irregular periods.

Ovulation Induction: Medications like clomiphene or gonadotropins can help stimulate ovulation.

In Vitro Fertilization (IVF): For individuals with infertility who do not respond to other treatments, IVF may be an option.

Ovarian Drilling: In some cases, if other treatments are unsuccessful, a procedure called ovarian drilling may be performed, which involves making small holes in the ovaries to reduce androgen production and restore ovulation.

Weakening of bones due to hormonal changes, especially in postmenopausal women.

Symptoms

In the early stages, osteoporosis often does not show any symptoms, and many people don't know they have it until they experience a bone fracture. Some signs and symptoms that may indicate osteoporosis include:

Fractures: Fractures from minor injuries or falls, particularly in the spine, hip, or wrist.

A fracture may be the first clue that someone has osteoporosis.

Loss of Height: Gradual loss of height over time, often due to spinal compression fractures.

Back Pain: Pain or tenderness in the back caused by fractured or collapsed vertebrae.

Stooped Posture: A noticeable change in posture, including a hunched or "dowager's hump" back, which is often the result of spinal fractures.

Bone Pain or Tenderness: General bone discomfort, though it is not always present.

Risk Factors

Several factors can increase the risk of developing osteoporosis:

Age: The risk increases with age. Postmenopausal women and older men are particularly at risk.

Gender: Women are more likely to develop osteoporosis than men, especially after menopause due to a decrease in estrogen levels.

Family History: A family history of osteoporosis or fractures can increase an individual’s risk.

Low Body Weight: People with a low body mass index (BMI) are at greater risk for osteoporosis due to lower bone density.

Hormonal Imbalances: Low estrogen levels in women (e.g., during menopause) and low testosterone levels in men can contribute to the development of osteoporosis.

Dietary Factors: A diet low in calcium and vitamin D can reduce bone strength.

Excessive alcohol consumption and smoking can also increase the risk.

Medical Conditions: Conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis, hyperthyroidism, diabetes, and eating disorders can increase the risk of osteoporosis.

Medications: Long-term use of certain medications, such as corticosteroids, antacids, and some cancer treatments, can weaken bones over time.

Lack of Physical Activity: A sedentary lifestyle can contribute to weaker bones, as bones need regular weight-bearing exercise to stay strong.

Diagnosis

Osteoporosis is diagnosed through various methods, including:

DXA (Dual-Energy X-ray Absorptiometry) scan is the most common and accurate test for measuring bone density. It helps determine bone mass and the likelihood of fractures.

Medical History and Physical Exam: The doctor will ask about any previous fractures, family history, diet, lifestyle habits, and any symptoms (e.g., back pain or loss of height).

A physical exam will check for signs of bone loss, such as a stooped posture.

Blood Tests: Blood tests can help rule out other conditions, such as vitamin D deficiency, thyroid disorders, or metabolic diseases that might contribute to bone loss.

X-rays: In some cases, an X-ray of the bones can reveal fractures or changes in bone structure.

Treatment Options

While there is no cure for osteoporosis, treatment options are available to help manage the condition, prevent fractures, and improve bone health. These include:

Bisphosphonates: The most common class of medication used to treat osteoporosis. Examples include alendronate (Fosamax), risedronate (Actonel), and ibandronate (Boniva). These drugs help slow down bone loss and reduce fracture risk.

Selective Estrogen Receptor Modulators (SERMs): Medications like raloxifene (Evista) can mimic estrogen's effects on bones and reduce the risk of fractures in postmenopausal women.

Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT): Hormones like estrogen may be prescribed to postmenopausal women to prevent bone loss. However, it is typically used for short periods due to potential side effects.

Denosumab: An injectable medication that works by blocking the activity of cells that break down bone. It is often used for individuals who cannot tolerate bisphosphonates.

Teriparatide: A synthetic form of parathyroid hormone used for individuals with severe osteoporosis. It stimulates new bone growth and increases bone density.

Calcitonin: A hormone that helps regulate bone calcium levels and can be used for pain relief following vertebral fractures.

Fall Prevention: Modifying the home environment (e.g., removing tripping hazards) to reduce the risk of falls and fractures is crucial. Wearing proper footwear, using handrails, and practicing balance exercises can also help.

Surgical Options: In cases of severe fractures or bone deformities, surgical interventions like spinal fusion or joint replacement may be necessary.

Vertebroplasty or kyphoplasty: Minimally invasive procedures used to treat spinal fractures caused by osteoporosis. These procedures involve injecting bone cement into the fractured vertebra to stabilize it.